AlAwlaqi, A., Amor, H., & Hammadeh, M. E. (2017). Role of hormones in hypoactive sexual
desire disorder and current treatment. Journal of the Turkish German Gynecological Association,
18(4), 210. doi: 10.4274/jtgga.2017.0071
Female sexual dysfunction (FSD) is among the disorders affecting the quality of life
among women. One of the common types of FSD is hyposexuality and impairs orgasm and
sexual desires among women. This article aimed to investigate how hormones trigger hypoactive
sexual desire disorders (HSDD) and the most effective management and treatment approaches.
AlAwlaqi, Amor, & Hammadeh (2017) argued that low sexual desire is a condition that affects women of all ages. Of all the FSD conditions, HSDD is the most prevalent and develops when
the desire for sex is assumed to be ordinary. Research studies indicate that low libido is a
common phenomenon in about 40% of women in their menopause. The authors argue that
sexuality is essential for women of all ages, but a lack of satisfying sex life harms their overall
quality of life. The development of HSDD is influenced by inadequate testosterone production,
which is responsible for stimulating sexual desires and behavior. The authors of this paper state
that there is no available clinical intervention to manage hyposexuality. This article was helpful
in understanding how hormones trigger HSDD. It may be useful in my final research paper as it
supports my argument that hormones have an impact on one’s sexuality.
Butnariu, M., & Sarac, I. Biochemistry of hormones that influences feelings. Ann Pharmacovigil
Drug Saf. 2019; 1 (1), 1001. http://www.remedypublications.com/open-access/biochemistry-of-
hormones-that-influences-feelings-4862.pdf
This article defines hormones as chemicals such as steroids, peptides, and proteins
generated by specialized cells. In other words, they are messengers released into the
bloodstreams to influence behavioral, physiological, and physical changes. Hormones are
responsible for regulating various functions in the body, including growth and development,
metabolism, and sexual functions. Butnariu and Sarac 2019 argued that every emotion triggers
hormones production, which eventually influences certain behaviors. For instance, joy and
happiness influence endorphins production while increased tension and worries trigger the
release of stress hormones. The article concludes that hormones play a critical role in the human
body as it regulates sleep, influences growth and development, and works to enhance our mental
state. This article was useful for doing this research paper. It will be used in the final paper to
discuss in depth how certain hormones influence feelings. Annotated Bibliography

Background
Bramble, M. S., Lipson, A., Vashist, N., & Vilain, E. (2017). Effects of chromosomal sex and
hormonal influences on shaping sex differences in brain and behavior: Lessons from cases of
disorders of sex development. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 95(1-2), 65-74. doi:
10.1002/jnr.23832
Research studies have found testosterone responsible for the organization of male-typical
features either directly or indirectly. In other words, testosterone is responsible for functions such
as sexual orientation, gender role behavior, and gender identity. This paper discusses how
disorders of sexual development (DSD), including 5-alpha-reductase deficiency syndrome,
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), and complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS),
contribute to brain and behavioral phenotypes. The authors argue that hormones influence brain
development in individuals, which, in turn, generate observable sex differences. The effects of
different DSDs differ between males and females because their development is largely dependent
on the composition of the sex chromosome. For instance, about 95 percent of CAH cases are
associated with a mutation in the CYP21A2 gene on chromosome 6, encoding the 21-
hydroxylase. Through mutation, many steroid hormone precursors located within the adrenals
become elevated, resulting in cortisol. Mutation also has an effect of increasing the levels of
testosterone in both XX and XY fetuses. Therefore, CAH causes female patients to be born with
varying degrees of genital virilization.
CAIS is also a common sexual disorder associated with sex reversal exclusivity on a 46,
XY chromosomal background. This condition is diagnosed at puberty as it is the period when patients experience amenorrhea. Studies show that individuals diagnosed with CAIS have no
ovaries, no uterus, have inguinal testes, and a blind-ending Vagina. The 5-α-reductase deficiency
is a DSD that is caused by mutation that takes place within the SRD5A2 gene located on
chromosome 2. The condition develops due to an improper conversion of testosterone (T) into
DHT, 46. Excess levels of T are generated during the teenage years. Bramble et al. (2017) argue
that sex differences between different human genders are largely attributed to sex chromosomes
and secretions of gonadal hormones. The article also states that women with CAH experience
high levels of non-heterosexual behaviors. This is because a significant percentage of women
with CAH have homosexual sexual fantasies. The article concludes that exposure to testosterone
is the greatest risk factor for ones' sexual orientation and predicts the extent of gender identity.
This article was useful and will also be for the completion of my research paper. This is because
it will form part of the background section to discuss the effects of chromosomal sex and
hormonal influences on shaping sex differences in brain and behavior.
Corre, C., Friedel, M., Vousden, D. A., Metcalf, A., Spring, S., Qiu, L. R., … & Palmert, M. R.
(2016). Separate effects of sex hormones and sex chromosomes on brain structure and function
revealed by high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging and spatial navigation assessment of the
Four Core Genotype mouse model. Brain Structure and Function, 221(2), 997-1016. DOI
10.1007/s00429-014-0952-0

This article posits that males and females differ greatly in both their brain structure and
functioning. This paper studied the effects of sex hormones and sex chromosomes on the brain's
brain structure and functioning. The authors studied sex differences using male and female mice.
The study authors performed a high-resolution ex vivo MRI to examine the brain structure of
mice. Additionally, the mice used were trained on a radial arm maze to help assess the differences in their cognitive function. The article noted that there is striking independence between hormones and chromosomal influences in different regions of the brain. For instance, sex chromosomes were found to influence olfactory bulbs, cerebellar cortex, and corpus
callosum. Therefore, understanding the effects of hormones and sex chromosomes on the brain
structure is key to understanding the sex differences in brain structure and function. Using a mix
of MRI and automated image processing is advantageous as it is increasingly sensitive and
enhances the whole brain's visibility. This article was useful in writing this annotated
bibliography and will also be essential for writing my final paper as it investigates the effects of
sex hormones and sex chromosomes on brain structure and function.
Snell, D. M., & Turner, J. M. (2018). Sex chromosome effects on male-female differences in
mammals. Current Biology, 28(22), R1313-R1324. doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.09.018
Male and females differ significantly concerning appearance, autonomy, genetics,
behavior, and physiology. This means that there is a wide disparity between disease
susceptibility between the sexes. The differences in sex influences the production of gonadal sex
hormones in utero. However, before their production, sex chromosomes induce the specific
aspects of organ development. This paper seeks to study the evidence of human sexual
dimorphism, analyzes the sources of genetic sexual dimorphism and discussed the various model
systems. This article noted that boys are more likely to be born with genitourinary tract
malfunction, while girls are more often born with scoliosis 5, 6 commonly referred to as
dysplasia of the hip. Similarly, in adulthood, males are more likely to be diagnosed with viral
and bacterial infections such as meningitis and influenza A. In adulthood, females are more often
diagnosed with cardiovascular diseases such as heart failure, Coronary artery disease, and Heart muscle disease. The differences in disease prevalence among sexes is attributed to either sex
chromosomes or gonadal sex hormones. Annotated Bibliography;
Studies reveal that both male and female fetuses are exposed to significant estrogens
while in utero. However, Snell & Turner (2018) argue that hormones drop significantly at birth
as the fetus is separated from the placenta. The authors of this article coined that although both
sexes generate equal amounts of hormones in their mid-teens, the level of testosterone in men
drops gradually as they approach their 50s. Similarly, the level of estrogen precipitously drops as
women approach their menopause. This is why boys are more likely to develop asthma during
pre-puberty. Research studies show that Genetic testis influences the evolution of sex
chromosomes, contributing to hormone-independent male-female differences. This article was
increasingly useful in writing this annotation paper. It will also be useful in writing of my final
research paper as it contains amazing insights on how sex Chromosome affect Male-Female
Differences.
Relevance/Application to current issues
Heck, A. L., & Handa, R. J. (2019). Sex differences in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis'
response to stress: an important role for gonadal hormones. Neuropsychopharmacology, 44(1),
45-58. doi: 10.1038/s41386-018-0167-9
The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) is a network that controls hormones' response
to both internal and external challenges. According to this article, sex differences between males
and females are influenced by critical developmental periods in human life or gonadal hormones
during adulthood. Heck & Handa (2019) argued that sex biases found between males and
females result from sex chromosomal effects. This paper aimed to study rodents to widen our understanding of sex differences in the stress-induced activity of the HPA axis in adulthood. The
article argues that females have an improved response to stress as the level of the CORT and
ACTH of production increases rapidly when they have stress compared to their male
counterparts. Heck & Handa (2019) also observed that MRs and GRs' density is significantly
reduced than in males. Read more
Sex differences in adults are partly due to the interactions between the HPA axis and the
hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. The latter influences the production of testosterone
in the testis and estrogens in the ovary. This means that testosterone and estradiol in adults
modulate the HPA axis. Studies argue that adult women have enhanced HPA responses
compared to male adults. However, this is influenced by age, menstrual cycle, and the overall
state of health. This article was relevant in this research as it provided insights on how sex
differences are influenced by critical developmental periods. It will also be essential for my final
research paper. Annotated Bibliography;
Holder, M. K., & Mong, J. A. (2017). The role of ovarian hormones and the medial amygdala in
sexual motivation. Current sexual health reports, 9(4), 262-270.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5798481/
This article posits that although women have been found to have active sexual desires,
little is known about the factors that influence sexual motivation in women. The article aimed to
discuss the factors that influence sexual motivation among women explicitly. Amygdala forms
part of the limbic system responsible for processing emotions, whether positive or negative. It
receives dopamine projections generated around the ventral tegmental area. It then projects
dopamine to the mediodorsal thalamus and nucleus accumbens. The factors that influence sexual
motivation include preceptive behaviors, menstrual cycle, solicitations, use of methamphetamine (METH) and steroid hormones. This article was useful in this annotation as it discussed the role
of ovarian hormones and the medial amygdala in sexual motivation. This is to mean that should
be part of my final research paper. Annotated Bibliography;
Recommendations/areas of new perspectives
Wang, Y., Wu, H., & Sun, Z. S. (2019). The biological basis of sexual orientation: How
hormonal, genetic, and environmental factors influence whom we are sexually attracted.
Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 55, 100798. doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2019.100798
Sexual orientation refers to the attraction to people of the same gender, the opposite
gender, or both sexes. Various factors are involved in the development of sexual orientation,
including genetics and epigenetics. The method used in the measurement of sexual orientation
includes the Kinsey scale, Klein Sexual Orientation Grid (KSOG), and penile plethysmography
(PPG). This article argues that testosterone plays a critical role in the process of brain
masculinization and the maintenance of sexual behaviors in adults. Estrogen is seen to also play
a pivotal role in the regulation of sexual behaviors. Wang, Wu, and Sun (2019) noted that most
women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are heterosexual concerning sexual behavior
and sexual arousal. The article concludes that males and females differ significantly with regard
to their sexuality in aspects such as genital arousal, expansion pattern, and sensitivity of prenatal
hormones. Annotated Bibliography;